Southeast Asia (or Southeastern Asia) is a subregion A subregion is a conceptual unit which derives from a larger region or continent and is usually based on location. Cardinal directions, such as south or southern, are commonly used to define a subregion of Asia Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 4 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population. During the 20th century Asia's population nearly quadrupled, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity, east of India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the and north of Australia For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of the roughly 250 language groups. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the immediate north and discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by the British. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates Plate tectonics is a scientific theory which describes the large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. The theory builds on the older concepts of continental drift, developed during the first decades of the 20th century by Alfred Wegener, and seafloor spreading, developed in the 1960s, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity.

Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions: the Asian mainland and island arcs An island arc is a type of archipelago formed as one oceanic tectonic plate subducts under another and produces magma at depth below the over-riding plate. An island arc that develops along the edge of a continent may be known as a volcanic arc, though most people find the distinction of little benefit and archipelagoes Archipelagos can be found isolated in bodies of water; or with a large land mass may neighbour them. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland. Archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but there are many other processes involved in their construction, to the east and southeast. The mainland Indochina, or the Indochinese peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia. It lies roughly east of India, south of China. The name has its origins in the French, Indochine, and was adopted when French colonizers in Vietnam began expanding their territory to bordering countries.[citation needed] section consists of Burma (Myanmar) Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in Indochina . The country is bordered by People's Republic of China on the north-east, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south-east, Bangladesh on the west, India on the north-west and the Bay of Bengal to the south-west with the Andaman Sea defining its southern, Cambodia The Kingdom of Cambodia, formerly known as Kampuchea, Khmer: ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា or Preăh Réachéa Nachâk Kâmpŭchéa, derived from the Indian language of Sanskrit Kambujadesa ), is a country in Southeast Asia that borders Thailand to the west and northwest, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the east,, Laos Laos , officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and People's Republic of China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west. Laos traces its history to the Kingdom of Lan Xang or Land of a Million Elephants, which existed from the 14th to, Thailand Thailand (pronounced /ˈtaɪlænd/ TYE-land or /ˈtaɪlənd/; Thai: ราชอาณาจักรไทย Ratcha Anachak Thai, IPA: [râːtɕʰa ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k tʰɑj]) (formerly Siam Thai: สยาม) is an independent country that lies in the heart of Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos, Vietnam Vietnam (pronounced /ˌviː.ɛtˈnɑːm/ VEE-et-NAHM; Vietnamese: Việt Nam, listen ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam, listen (help·info)), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by People's Republic of China (PRC) to the and Peninsular Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia , also known as West Malaysia (formerly Malaya), is the part of Malaysia which lies on the Malay Peninsula, and shares a land border with Thailand in the north. To the south is the island of Singapore. Its area is 50,810 square miles (131,598 square kilometers). It accounts for the majority of Malaysia's population and economy while the maritime Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the maritime region of Southeast Asia as opposed to mainland Southeast Asia and includes the modern countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei and Singapore section consists of Brunei Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace[citation needed] (Malay: Negara Brunei Darussalam, Jawi: بروني دارالسلام), is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea it is completely surrounded by, East Malaysia East Malaysia consists of the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, located on the island of Borneo, as well as the Federal Territory of Labuan, which lies off coast of Sabah. East Malaysia lies to the east, across the South China Sea from Peninsular Malaysia which is located on the Malay Peninsula. While East Malaysia is less populated and less, East Timor East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste is a country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse, an exclave on the northwestern side of the island, within Indonesian West Timor. The small country of 15,410 km² (5,400 sq mi) is located about 640 km (400 mi) northwest of, Indonesia Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With a population of around 230 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an, the Philippines The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and, and Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, 137 kilometres north of the equator, in the Southeast Asian region of the Asian continent. It is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north, and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to its south. A.[1] Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (pronounced /ˈpæpuːə njuː ˈɡɪni/ PAP-oo-ə new-GIN-ee, also /ˈpɑːpuːə/ PAH-poo-ə or /ˈpæpjuːə/ PAP-yew-ə; Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) (PNG), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands (the is an observer in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly abbreviated ASEAN , is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Since then, membership has expanded to include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos,, as East Timor does.

Geographically speaking southern China Northern China and Southern China (Chinese: 华南; pinyin: Huánán), also referred to in China as simply (Chinese: 北方; pinyin: Běifāng) the North and (Chinese: 南方; pinyin: Nánfāng) the South, are two approximate regions within China. The exact boundary between these two regions has never been precisely defined. Nevertheless, the self-, Taiwan,[2] Hong Kong Hong Kong is one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China; the other is Macau. Situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With land mass of 1,104 km2 (426 sq mi) and a population of seven million[3][4] and Macau Macau , also known as Macao (pronounced /məˈkaʊ/) is one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, the other being Hong Kong. Macau lies on the western side of the Pearl River Delta, bordering Guangdong province to the north and facing the South China Sea in the east and south[5] are sometimes grouped in the Southeast Asia subregion, although politically they are rarely grouped as such. The same is true for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands ( pronunciation ); (Bengali: আন্দামান ও নিকোবর দ্বীপপুঞ্জ; Tamil: அந்தமான் நிக்கோபார் தீவுகள், Hindi: अंडमान और निकोबार द्वीपसमूह,Telugu:అండమాన్ నిక of India.[6][7] On the contrary, Vietnam is culturally and historically tied to East Asia East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms. Geographically and geo-politically, it covers about 12,000,000 km2 (4,600,000 sq mi), or about 28 percent of the Asian continent, about 15 percent bigger than the area of Europe rather than the rest of Southeast Asia.

Austronesian peoples Islam, Christianity, Animism, and Hinduism predominate in this region. The major religions are Islam Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called and Buddhism Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by adherents as an, followed by Christianity Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. Christianity comprises three major branches: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy (which parted ways with Catholicism in 1054 A.D.) and Protestantism (which came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th. However a wide variety of religions are found throughout the region, including many Hindu and animist-influenced practices.[citation needed]

Contents

Divisions

Political

Definitions of "Southeast Asia" vary, but most definitions include the area represented by the countries:

All of the above excluding Timor-Leste are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly abbreviated ASEAN , is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Since then, membership has expanded to include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, (commonly abbreviated ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly abbreviated ASEAN , is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Since then, membership has expanded to include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos,.) The area, together with part of South Asia South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries on the west and the east. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as the Indian subcontinent south of the, was widely known as the East Indies The Indies is a term that has been used to describe the lands of South and Southeast Asia, occupying all of the present India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and also Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Brunei, Singapore, the Philippines, East Timor, Malaysia and Indonesia. In a more restricted sense, the Indies can or simply the Indies The Indies is a term that has been used to describe the lands of South and Southeast Asia, occupying all of the present India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and also Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Brunei, Singapore, the Philippines, East Timor, Malaysia and Indonesia. In a more restricted sense, the Indies can until the twentieth century. Christmas Island The Territory of Christmas Island is a territory of Australia in the Indian Ocean. It is located 2,600 kilometres northwest of the Western Australian city of Perth, 360 km (220 mi) south of the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, and 975 km (606 mi) ENE of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands are considered part of Southeast Asia though they are governed by Australia. Sovereignty issues exist over some islands in the South China Sea. Papua is politically part of Southeast Asia through Indonesia, although geographically it is often considered as part of Oceania. As of 2009, Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, indicating a possible switch in its geographic locale.[8][9]

Geographical

Location of Southeast Asia.[10]

The eastern parts of Indonesia and East Timor (east of Wallace Line) are considered to be geographically parts of Oceania.

Compare Regions of Asia described by UN: North Asia Central Asia Southwest Asia South Asia East Asia Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (Indonesian: Nusantara).

Mainland Southeast Asia includes:

Maritime Southeast Asia includes:

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Southeast Asia. Bangladesh and the Seven Sister States of India are culturally part of Southeast Asia and sometimes considered both South Asian and Southeast Asian. The Seven Sister States of India are also geographically part of southeast Asia. Hainan Island and several other southern Chinese regions such as Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi are considered both East Asian and Southeast Asian. The rest of New Guinea is sometimes included so are Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands, which were all part of the Spanish East Indies.

Countries and territories data

Countries

Country Area (km2)[11] Population(2009)[1] Density (/km2) GDP USD(2009)[12] GDP per capita(2009) Capital
Brunei 5,765 400,000 70 14,700,000,000 $36,700 Bandar Seri Begawan
Myanmar 676,578 50,020,000 74 26,820,000,000 $500 Naypyidaw
Cambodia 181,035 14,805,000 82 10,900,000,000 $800 Phnom Penh
Timor-Leste 14,874 1,134,000 76 599,000,000 $500 Dili
Indonesia 1,904,569 240,271,522 126 514,900,000,000 $2,200 Jakarta
Laos 236,800 6,320,000 27 5,721,000,000 $900 Vientiane
Malaysia 329,847 28,318,000 83 191,400,000,000 $6,800 Kuala Lumpur
Philippines 299,764 91,983,000 307 158,700,000,000 $1,750 Manila
Singapore 710.2 4,987,600[13] 7,023 177,100,000,000 $35,500 City of Singapore (Downtown Core)
Thailand 513,120 67,764,000 132 263,500,000,000 $3,900 Bangkok
Vietnam 331,210 88,069,000 265 97,120,000,000 $1,100 Hanoi

Territories

Territory Area (km2) Population Density (/km2)
Christmas Island 135[14] 1,402[14] 10.4
Cocos (Keeling) Islands 14[15] 596[15] 42.6

History

Main article: History of Southeast Asia Designs on Dong Son drum belonging to Iron Age prehistoric Dong Son culture locating on Red River Delta, Vietnam.

Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[16] Homo floresiensis seems to have shared some islands with modern humans until only 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct.[17] Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population in Indonesia and the Philippines, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[18]

Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao (Nusantara) maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BCE to 1 CE.[19] The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years, some reaching the island of Madagascar. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were ocean-worthy. Magellan's voyage records how much more maneuvreable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships.[20]

Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonization of Madagascar by the Austronesian people, as well as commerce between West Asia and Southeast Asia. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome, while slaves from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in Magellan's voyage as a translator.

Originally most people were animist. This was later replaced by Brahmanic Hinduism. Theravada Buddhism soon followed in 525. In 1400s, Islamic influences began to enter. This forced the last Hindu court in Indonesia to retreat to Bali.

In Mainland Southeast Asia, Myanmar, Cambodia and Thailand retained the Theravada form of Buddhism, brought to them from Sri Lanka. This type of Buddhism was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture.

Architecture in the Srivijayan style. Surat Thani Thailand

Indianized kingdoms

Main article: Indianized kingdom Further information: Greater India

Very little is known about Southeast Asian religious beliefs and practices before the advent of Indian merchants and religious influences from the second century BCE onwards. Prior to the 13th century, Hinduism and Buddhism were the main religions in Southeast Asia.

The Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra existed around 200 BCE. The history of the Malay-speaking world begins with the advent of Indian influence, which dates back to at least the 3rd century BC. Indian traders came to the archipelago both for its abundant forest and maritime products and to trade with merchants from China, who also discovered the Malay world at an early date. Both Hinduism and Buddhism were well established in the Malay Peninsula by the beginning of the 1st century CE, and from there spread across the archipelago.

Angkor Wat, in Siem Reap, Cambodia, is the largest religious temple in the world and Angkor the largest pre-industrial city in the world

Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of the Funan kingdom. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Cambodia is the home to one of the only two temples dedicated to Brahma in the world. Angkor Wat is also a famous Hindu temple of Cambodia. The Champa civilization was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly indianized Hindu Kingdom.

The Majapahit Empire was an Indianized kingdom based in eastern Java from 1293 to around 1500. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when it dominated other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Celebes, the Moluccas islands, and some areas of western Papua, making it the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.

The Cholas excelled in maritime activity in both military and the mercantile fields. Their raids of Kedah and the Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.[21]

Islamization of Southeast Asia

See also: Spread of Islam in Indonesia

In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia, the Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah), the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in the year 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married with princess of Pasai, the son became the first sultan of Malacca, soon Malacca became the center of Islam study and maritime trade, other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[22]

There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. The first theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders brought Islam to the region. The second theory is the role of missionaries or Sufis. The Sufi missionaries played a significant role in spreading the faith by syncretising Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and religious notions. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as the religion provided a unifying force among the ruling and trading classes.

Trade and colonization

China

See also: List of tributaries of Imperial China and Imperialism in Asia

Chinese merchants have traded with the region for a long time as evidence of Magellan's voyage records that Brunei possessed more cannon than the European ships so it appears that the Chinese fortified them.[20]

Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Han Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Po's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled.

The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice".

Strait of Malacca, (narrows).

Europe

Western influence started to enter in the 1500s, with the arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish in Moluccas and the Philippines. Later the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. All southeast Asian countries were colonized except for Thailand.

European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago.

Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western science and technology to enter its country.

Japan

See also: Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Slavery in Japan, Japanese occupation of Indonesia, and Japanese war crimes

During World War II, the Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies. The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against indigenous civilians such as the Manila Massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labor, such as the one involving 4 to 10 million romusha in Indonesia.[23] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation.[24]

The Keppel Container Terminal in the Port of Singapore. The Port of Singapore is the busiest transshipment and container port in the world, and is an important transportation and shipping hub in Southeast Asia.

Present

See also: Japanese foreign policy in Southeast Asia

Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce.

Conflicting territorial and maritime claims continue to exist, including the conflicting claims by Taiwan, China, and the Philippines over the Spratly Islands.

Geography

Hạ Long Bay, a Natural World's Heritage Site in Vietnam Mayon Volcano in the Philippines overlooks a pastoral scene. See also: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia) and List of Southeast Asian mountains

Geologically, the Indonesian archipelago is one of the most active vulcanological regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,024 ft), on the island of New Guinea, it is the only place where ice glacier can be found in Southeast Asia. While the second tallest peak is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia on the island of Borneo with a height of 4,101 meters (13,455 ft). The tallest mountain in the Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 meters and can be found in northern Myanmar. The largest archipelago in the world by size is Indonesia (according to the CIA World Factbook)

Boundaries

See also: Austronesia

The Australian continent defines a region adjacent to Southeast Asia, which is also politically separated from the countries of Southeast Asia. But a cultural touch point lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian region of Papua and West Papua, which shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea.

Climate

The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical–hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shift in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rain forest is the second largest on earth (with the Amazon being the largest). An exception to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are desert like.

Environment

See also: Southeast Asian coral reefs and Wallace line Water Buffalo. Wallace's hypothetical line between Australasian and Southeast Asian fauna. Great Hornbill - bird from Southeast Asia

All of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterized as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the Orangutan (man of the forest), the Asian Elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran Rhinoceros and the Bornean Clouded Leopard can be also found. Six subspecies of the Binturong or bearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is now classed as vulnerable.

Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are endangered.

The Komodo Dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia.

The Wild Asian Water Buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species of Bubalus such as Anoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia, nowadays the Domestic Asian Water buffalo is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered.

The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, can be found on Sumatra, Borneo and Palawan Islands. The gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild Water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina.

Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.

The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only few exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent soil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javan rhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.

The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat area is the highest recorded on Earth.[1] Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, Philippines and Papua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, making Raja Ampat quite possibly the richest coral reef ecosystems in the world. The whale shark, the world's largest species of fish and 6 species of pawikans can also be found in the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines.

Chocolate Hills in Bohol, Philippines

The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged-over, especially in Borneo.

While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as orangutan and the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[25] At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities in Indonesia. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution in order to combat haze pollution.

Economy

Singapore is a major economic center of the region Bangkok, a primary city in Southeast Asia and the capital of Thailand Manila, one of the busiest cities in the region

Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. The Ryukyu Kingdom often participated in maritime trade in Southeast Asia. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were such spices as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First Spaniards (Manila galleon) and Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya, the French into Indochina and the Spanish into the Philippines

While the region's economy greatly depends on agriculture, manufacturing and services are becoming more important. An emerging market, Indonesia is the largest economy in this region. Newly industrialized countries include the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand, while Singapore and Brunei are affluent developed economies. The rest of Southeast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture, but Vietnam is notably making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors. The region notably manufactures textiles, electronic high-tech goods such as microprocessors and heavy industrial products such as automobiles. Reserves of oil are also present in the region.

Seventeen telecommunications companies have contracted to build a new submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the U.S.[26] This is to avoid disruption of the kind recently caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to the U.S. in a recent earthquake.

Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, “tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our planet.”[27] Since the early 1990s, “even the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar, where the income derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism industries.”[28] In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts relative to GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6% of GDP while Thailand and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7%. Since 2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN countries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from tourism in 2006.[29]

Indonesia is the only member of G-20 major economies and considered as the largest economy in the region.[30]. Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal) for 2008 was US$511.7 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDP was US$2,246, and per capita GDP PPP was US$3,979 (international dollars).[31]

Demographics

Pie chart showing the distribution of population among the nations of Southeast Asia and among the islands of Indonesia

Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,000,000 km2 (1.6 million square miles). As of 2004, more than 593 million people lived in the region, more than a fifth of them (125 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous country with 230 million people and also 4th most populous country in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 million overseas Chinese, not including the heritage, also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Indonesia and Thailand, and also, as the Hoa, in Vietnam.

Ethnic groups

Main article: ethnic groups of Southeast Asia See also: Austronesian people, Chinese ethnic groups, Overseas Indians, Eurasian (mixed ancestry), Filipino people, Malays (ethnic group), Khmer people, Negrito, and Tai peoples

According to a recent Stanford genetic study, the Southeast Asian population is far from being homogeneous. Although primarily descendants of Austronesian, Tai, and Mon-Khmer-speaking immigrants who migrated from Southern China during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, there are overlays of Arab, Chinese, Indian, Polynesian and Melanesian genes.

There are also large pockets of intermarriage between indigenous Southeast Asians and those of Chinese descent. They form a substantial part of everyday life in countries such as Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines. Indonesia and Malaysia also has mixed Southeast Asian-Chinese populations.

Ati woman – the Negritos were the earliest inhabitants of Southeast Asia

On the mainland the Khmer peoples of Cambodia remain as ancestors of earlier Pareoean peoples. Similarly, remnants of the Mon group are found in parts of Myanmar and Thailand; the ethnic mixture there has been produced by overlaying Tibeto-Burman and Tai, Lao, and Shan peoples. The contemporary Vietnamese population originated from the Red River area in the north and may be a mixture of Tai and Malay peoples.[citation needed] Added to these major ethnic groups are such less numerous peoples as the Karens, Chins, and Nagas in Myanmar, who have affinities with other Asiatic peoples. Insular Southeast Asia contains a mixture of descendants of Proto-Malay (Nesiot) and Pareoean peoples who were influenced by Malayo-Polynesian and other groups. In addition, Arabic, Indian, and Chinese influences have affected the ethnic pattern of the islands.

In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 86 million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. In Myanmar, the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country, while ethnic Thais and Vietnamese account for about four-fifths of the respective populations of those countries. Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, while Malaysia is more evenly split between the Malays and the Chinese. Within the Philippines, the Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, and Bicol groups are significant.

Malay family from Malaysia

Religions

See also: Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Hinduism in Southeast Asia, Islam in Southeast Asia, Muslim Southeast Asia, and Christianity in Asia Thai Theravada Buddhists in Chiang Mai, Thailand The Basilica Minore de San Sebastián also known San Sebastián Church in Manila, Philippines

Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Southeast Asia, numbering approximately 240 million adherents which translate to about 40% of the entire population, with majorities in Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. Mainland Southeast Asian countries, which are, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam and Singapore practice predominantly Buddhism. Ancestor worship and Confucianism is also widely practiced in Vietnam and Singapore. In Maritime Southeast Asia, people living in Malaysia, western Indonesia and Brunei practice mainly Islam. Christianity is predominant in the Philippines because of Spanish colonization for more than 300 years, eastern Indonesia and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population followed very distantly by Vietnam. East Timor is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of Portuguese rule.

The religious composition for each country is as follows. Some values are taken from the CIA World Factbook:[32]

A Hindu sacrificial altar in Cambodia

Religions and peoples are diverse in Southeast Asia and not one country is homogeneous. In the world's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also predominates in Philippines, New Guinea and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia etc. Garuda (Sanskrit: Garuḍa), the phoenix who is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practiced elsewhere, as Animism and local culture is incorporated into it. Cambodia still involves today in practice Hindism for mixture toward the excessity Buddhism disciple of the numerous special occasion, wornship and belief with the root of previous powerful Khmer Empire. Christians can also be found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia's largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas of Sarawak in East Malaysia and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Myanmar, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practiced, which is influenced by native animism but with strong emphasis on Ancestor Worship.

Brunei Islam (67%), Buddhism (13%), Christianity (10%), others (indigenous beliefs, etc.) (10%)
Burma Theravada Buddhism (89%), Islam (4%), Christianity (4%), Animism (1%), others (2%)
Cambodia Theravada Buddhism (95%), Islam, Christianity, Animism other (5%)
Christmas Island Buddhism (36%), Islam (25%), Christianity (18%), Taoism (15%), others (6%)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands Sunni Islam (80%), others (20%)
East Timor Roman Catholicism (90%), Islam (5%), Protestant (3%), others (Buddhism, Hinduism, etc.) (2%)
Indonesia Islam (86.1%), Protestant (5.7%), Roman Catholicism (3%), Hinduism (1.8%), others including Buddhism, or unspecified (3.4%)[33]
Laos Theravada Buddhism (65%) with Animism (32.9%), Christianity (1.3%), others (0.8%)
Malaysia Islam (60.4%), Mahayana Buddhism (19.2%), Christianity (9.1%), Hinduism (6.1%), Animism (5.2%)
Papua New Guinea Roman Catholicism (27%), Evangelical Lutheran (20%), United Church (12%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (10%), Pentecostal (9%), Evangelical (7%), Anglican (3%), other Christian (8%), others (4%)
Philippines Roman Catholicism (80%), Islam (5%), Evangelical (2.8%), Iglesia ni Cristo (2.2%), Philippine Independent Church (Aglipayan) (2%), other Christian (3%), others (Traditional beliefs, Buddhism, Judaism, nonreligious, etc.) (5%)
Singapore Buddhism (42.5%), Islam (15%), Taoism (8%), Roman Catholicism (4.5%), Hinduism (4%), nonreligious (15%), Christian (10%), others (1%)
South China Sea Islands Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Islam, Taoism, nonreligious
Thailand Theravada Buddhism (94.6%), Islam (4.6%), others (1%)
Vietnam Mahayana Buddhism (81%), Roman Catholicism (5%), Theravada Buddhism (2%), Cao Dai (1%), Protestant (1%), others (Animism, Hoa Hao, Islam, nonreligious, etc.; 10%)

Languages

See also: Austric languages, Sino-Tibetan languages, Austro-Asiatic languages, Austronesian languages, Hmong-Mien languages, and Kradai languages

Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade and historical colonization as well. Thus, for example, a Filipino, educated in English and Filipino, as well as in his native tongue (e.g., Visayan), might well speak another language, such as Spanish for historical reasons, or Chinese, Korean or Japanese for economic reasons; a Malaysian might well speak English, Chinese, Tamil as well as Malay as a second language.

The language composition for each country is as follows: (official languages are in bold.)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Nicobarese, Bengali, English, Hindi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Shompen, Andamanese languages, others
Brunei Malay, English, Chinese, indigenous Borneian dialects[34]
Cambodia Khmer, English, French, Vietnamese, Thai, Chamic dialects, Chinese languages, others[35]
Christmas Island English, Chinese, Malay[36]
Cocos (Keeling) Islands English, Cocos Malay[37]
East Timor Tetum, Portuguese, Indonesian, English, Mambae, Makasae, Tukudede, Bunak, Galoli, Kemak, Fataluku, Baikeno, others[38]
Indonesia Indonesian, Hakka, Min Chinese, Cantonese, Acehnese, Batak, Minang, Sundanese, Javanese, Banjarese,Sasak, Tetum, Dayak, Minahasa, Toraja, Buginese, Halmahera, Ambonese, Ceramese; Dutch, Papuan languages, others[39]
Laos Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Hmong, Miao, Mien, Dao, Shan; French, English others[40]
Malaysia Malay, English, Min Chinese, Hakka, Cantonese, Mandarin, Indian languages, Sarawakian and Sabahan languages, others[41]
Myanmar (Burma) Burmese, Shan, Karen, Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Mon, Chinese languages, Indian languages, others
Philippines Filipino, English, Minnan Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon/Ilonggo, Kapampangan, Bicol, Waray, Pangasinan, Spanish and Arabic (optional)[42]
Singapore English, Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, Min Chinese, Cantonese, Hakka, Shanghainese, other Indian languages, Arabic dialects, others
South China Sea Islands English, Filipino, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese
Thailand Thai, Minnan Chinese, Hakka Chinese, Cantonese, English, Malay, Lao, Khmer, Isaan, Shan, Lue, Phutai, Mon, Mein, Hmong, Karen, Burmese, others [43]
Vietnam Vietnamese, English, Cantonese, Minnanese, French, Khmer, mountain area languages (Mon-Khmer and Malayo-Polynesian, hmong)[44]

Culture

See also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast Asian Games, and Southeast Asian music The Banaue Rice Terraces in Luzon Island, Philippines.

Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for thousands of years, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labor-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon climate of the region.

Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Laos, to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea.

The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This include weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such as the gamelan.

Influences

The region's chief cultural influences have been from either China or India or both, with Vietnam considered by far the most Chinese-influenced. Myanmar can be said to be influenced equally by both India and China. Western cultural influence is most pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of Spanish rule.

As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples first ate with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.

The Arts

"Buffalo boy plays a flute", Đông Hồ painting, Vietnam. Apsara Dance show a softful movement, means of graceful and beauty of Cambodia. File:FACES OF MASSKARA.jpg Masskara festival, in Bacolod City, Philippines A Thai boy plays the khim, a traditional Thai instrument similar to the yangqin from China.*Khim audio Balinese writing on palm leaf. Artifacts can be seen in the Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois.

The arts of Southeast Asia have no affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia also includes movement of the hands, as well as the feet to express the emotion and meaning of dance upon the story that the ballerina going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asian confirmed the Dance into their court, according to Cambodian royal ballet represent them in earlier of 7th century before Khmer Empire which highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for its strongly hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindism symbol dance. Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries as the famous one known as Wayang from Indonesia.The Arts and Literature in some of Southeast Asia is quite influenced by Hinduism brought to them centuries ago.

The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware.

In Indonesia, despite conversion to Islam opposed to certain forms of art, they retained many forms of Hindu influenced practices, cultures, arts and literatures. An example will be the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literatures like the Ramayana. This is also true for mainland Southeast Asia (excluding Vietnam). Dance movements, Hindu gods, arts were also fused into Thai, Khmer, Lao and Burmese cultures. It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind the life of the gods was the life of the peoples themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine.

In Vietnam, the Vietnamese share many cultural similarities with the Chinese.

Music

Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region.

Of the court and folk genres, Gong-chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan orchestras from Indonesia, Piphat /Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand & Cambodia and the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are popular in the region.

Writing

Main articles: Baybayin, Jawi script, S.E.A. Write Award, and Thai alphabet

The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region.

Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar, right:

The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This would have been more durable in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "World Macro Regions and Components". The United Nations. http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/maplib/worldregions.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-13.
  2. ^ http://www.mallsindex.com/asia/taiwan/
  3. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=PgJTSYeEnNkC&pg=PA63&lpg=PA63&dq=hong+kong+%22largest+in+southeast+asia%22&source=bl&ots=vxKgKDWo0c&sig=-Q9yPpc9cUtdoKKQfAIo1XynkQA&hl=zh-TW&ei=HTEyTPutFYHZceGc7MQD&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CB8Q6AEwATgK
  4. ^ http://www.flyasiana.com/download_file/%EC%95%84%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%EB%82%98%20%EB%A7%A4%EC%A7%81%EB%A7%88%EC%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%20%ED%9A%8C%EC%9B%90%EC%95%88%EB%82%B4%EC%84%9C_%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8.pdf
  5. ^ http://www.chanbrothers.com/Static/yes933fm_macau/macau.cfm
  6. ^ http://www.indianbeaches.net/andaman-nicobar/
  7. ^ http://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g297583-d1743636-Reviews-Barren_Island_Volcano-Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands.html
  8. ^ Papua New Guinea asks RP support for Asean membership bid Retrieved July 8, 2009
  9. ^ Somare seeks PGMA's support for PNG's ASEAN membership bid Retrieved July 8, 2009
  10. ^ This map primarily indicates ASEAN member countries, and therefore does not mark the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which are also geographically a part of Southeast Asia.
  11. ^ "Country Comparison :: Area". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
  12. ^ "Country Comparison :: GDP". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2195.html. Retrieved 2010-02-12.
  13. ^ Statistics Singapore - Population (Mid Year Estimates) & Land Area. 2009. Statistics Singapore. 2009. http://www.singstat.gov.sg/stats/keyind.html#popnarea.
  14. ^ a b "Christmas Islands". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kt.html. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
  15. ^ a b "Cocos (Keeling) Islands". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ck.html. Retrieved 2009-09-12.
  16. ^ Smithsonian (July 2008). The Great Human Migration. p. 2. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html.
  17. ^ Morwood, M. J.; Brown, P., Jatmiko, Sutikna, T., Wahyu Saptomo, E., Westaway, K. E., Rokus Awe Due, Roberts, R. G., Maeda, T., Wasisto, S. and Djubiantono, T. (October 13, 2005). "Further evidence for small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia". Nature 437: 1012–1017. doi:10.1038/nature04022.
  18. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 5–7. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
  19. ^ Solheim, Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2000, 2:1-2, pp. 273-284(12)
  20. ^ a b Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0-06-621173-5
  21. ^ The great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 pp 709
  22. ^ Chinese Muslims in Malaysia, History and Development by Rosey Wang Ma
  23. ^ Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942-50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942-45" Access date: February 9, 2007.
  24. ^ John W. Dower War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986; Pantheon; ISBN 0-394-75172-8)
  25. ^ Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia, New Scientist, 23 July 2003
  26. ^ Sean Yoong (April 27, 2007). "17 Firms to Build $500M Undersea Cable". International Business Times. http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/20070427/malaysia-undersea-cable.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  27. ^ Background overview of The National Seminar on Sustainable Tourism Resource Management, Phnom Penh, June 9–10, 2003. (http://pub.unwto.org:81/WebRoot/Store/Shops/Infoshop/Products/1240/1240-1.pdf)
  28. ^ Hitchcock, Michael, et al. Tourism in South-East Asia. New York: Routledge, 1993
  29. ^ WDI Online
  30. ^ What is the G-20, www.g20.org. Retrieved 2009-10-6.
  31. ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Imf.org. 14 September 2006. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2014&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=67&pr1.y=11&c=536&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIE%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
  32. ^ "Field Listing - Religions". CIA factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  33. ^ Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html
  34. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Brunei
  35. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Cambodia
  36. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Christmas Island
  37. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Cocos (Keeling) Islands
  38. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- East Timor
  39. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Indonesia
  40. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Laos
  41. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Malaysia
  42. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Philippines
  43. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Thailand
  44. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Vietnam

Further reading

External links

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