Ahimsa (Sanskrit Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism and Buddhism[note 1]. Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand. Sanskrit has been declared a classical language by the Government of India: Devanagari Devanagari , also called Nagari (Nāgarī, the name of its parent writing system), is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written from left to right, does not have distinct letter cases, and is recognizable by a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the letters that links them together. Devanāgarī is the main script; अहिंसा; IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a popular transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts ahiṃsā, Pāli Pāli is a Middle Indo-Aryan language (or prakrit) of India. It is best known as the language of many of the earliest extant Buddhist scriptures, as collected in the Pāḷi Canon or Tipitaka, and as the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism: avihiṃsā) is a term meaning to do no harm (literally: the avoidance of violence - himsa). It is an important tenet of the Indian religions Indian religions are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, inclusive of their sub-schools and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger classes of "Eastern religions" and also Indo-European religions . Indian religions have (Hinduism Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of South Asia. Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as in Vaishnavism. Hinduism also includes yogic traditions, Buddhism Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by adherents as an and especially Jainism Jainism is an ancient religion of India that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to progress the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called Jina (). Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings. It is closely connected with the notion that all kinds of violence entail negative karmic Karma (Sanskrit: कर्म kárma , kárman- "act, action, performance"; Pali: kamma) in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect (i.e., the cycle called saṃsāra) originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Buddhist consequences. The extent to which the principle of non-violence can or should be applied to different life forms is controversial between various authorities, movements and currents within the three religions and has been a matter of debate for thousands of years. Though the origins of the concept of ahimsa are unknown, the earliest references to ahimsa are found in the texts of historical Vedic religion The religion of the Vedic period is a historical predecessor of Hinduism. Its liturgy is reflected in the Mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites that often involved sacrifices. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a, dated to 8th century BCE. Here, ahimsa initially relates to "non-injury" without a moral connotation, but later to non-violence to animals and then, to all beings. Though ritual sacrifice of animals and meat-eating are condoned in the earliest Vedic texts, other texts present counter-arguments against these activities. In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (January 12, 1863–July 4, 1902), born Narendranath Dutta was the chief disciple of the 19th century mystic Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the founder of Ramakrishna Mission. He is considered a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America and is also credited with raising interfaith awareness,, Ramana Maharishi Sri Ramana Maharshi (December 30, 1879 – April 14, 1950), born Venkataraman Iyer, was an Indian sage. He was born to a Tamil-speaking Brahmin family in Tiruchuzhi, Tamil Nadu. After having attained liberation at the age of 16, he left home for Arunachala, a mountain considered sacred by Hindus, at Tiruvannamalai, and lived there for the rest of, Swami Sivananda Swami Sivananda Saraswati was a Hindu spiritual teacher and a well known proponent of Sivananda Yoga and Vedanta. Sivananda was born Kuppuswami in Pattamadai, in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. He studied medicine and served in Malaya as a physician for several years before taking up monasticism. He lived most of the later part of his life and A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (September 1, 1896 – November 14, 1977) was a Gaudiya Vaishnava teacher and the founder-acharya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, commonly known as the "Hare Krishna Movement". His mission was to propagate the Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Hinduism that had been emphasized the importance of ahimsa. Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Hindi: मोहनदास करमचंद गाँधी, Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, pronounced [moːɦən̪d̪aːs kərəmʨən̪d̪ ɡaːn̪d̪ʱiː] ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian applied ahimsa to politics, by his non-violent satyagrahas Satyagraha is a philosophy and practice of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as "Mahatma" Gandhi). Gandhi deployed satyagraha in the Indian independence movement and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa. Satyagraha theory influenced Nelson Mandela's struggle in South Africa under.

Ahimsa in Jainism Ahiṃsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term "ahimsa" means “non-violence”, “non-injury” or absence of desire to harm any life forms. Vegetarianism and other non-violent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of Ahiṃsā. According to Adian Rankin, emphasizes vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of following a plant-based diet including fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and seeds, with or without dairy products and eggs. A vegetarian does not eat meat, including red meat, game, poultry, fish, crustacea, and shellfish, and may also abstain from by-products of animal slaughter such as animal-derived and bans hunting and ritual sacrifice. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals and make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. In accordance to this policy, eating of some foods, whose cultivation harms small insects and worms as well as agriculture itself, is to be abstained from. Violence in self-defense, criminal law, and war are accepted by Hindus and Jains. Though ahimsa is not used as a technical term in Buddhism unlike the other two religions, it condemns ritual sacrifice and violence, and moral codes emphasize the importance of not taking life.

Contents 1 Vedism 1.1 Quotes from Vedas 2 Hinduism 2.1 Non-human life 2.2 Self-defense, criminal law, and war 2.3 Modern times 2.4 Yoga 3 Jainism 4 Buddhism 4.1 War 4.2 Laws 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Vedism

The term ahinsa appears in the Taittiriya Samhita of the Yajurveda The Yajurveda is the third of the four canonical texts of Hinduism, the Vedas. By some, it is estimated to have been composed between 1,400 and 1000 BCE, the Yajurveda 'Samhita', or 'compilation', contains the liturgy (mantras) needed to perform the sacrifices of the religion of the Vedic period, and the added Brahmana and Shrautasutra add (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.^[1] It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana The Shatapatha Brahmana is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual, associated with the Shukla Yajurveda. It survives in two recensions, Madhyandina (ŚBM, of the vājasaneyi madhyandina śākhā) and Kanva (ŚBK, of the kāṇva śākhā), with the former having the eponymous 100 brahmanas in 14 books, and the latter 104 brahmanas in 17 in the sense of "non-injury" without a moral connotation.^[2] The ahimsa doctrine is a late development in Brahmanical culture.^[3] The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (pashu-ahimsa), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE.^[4] The word scarcely appears in the principal Upanishads.^[5] The Chandogya Upanishad The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the "primary" Upanishads. Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad it ranks among the oldest Upanishads, dating to the Vedic Brahmana period (probably before first millennium BCE), dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads The Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), while the latest were composed in the medieval and, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarva-bhuta) and the practitioner of ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of reincarnation Reincarnation is believed to occur when the soul or spirit, after the death of the body, comes back to Earth in a newborn body. This phenomenon is also known as transmigration of the soul (CU 8.15.1).^[6] It also names ahimsa as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4). Some scholars are of the opinion that this passage was a concession to growing influence of shramanic A shramana is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India, including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika religion (now extinct). Famous śramaṇa include religious leaders Mahavira and Gautama Buddha culture on the Brahmanical religion.^[7]

Quotes from Vedas

Aghnyaa yajamaanasya pashoonpahi Yajurveda 1.1

“O human! animals are Aghnya – not to be killed. Protect the animals.)2-``Breehimattam yavamattamatho maashamatho tilam Esha vaam bhaago nihito ratnadheyaaya dantau maa hinsishtam pitaram maataram cha- Atharvaveda 6.140.2

O teeth! You eat rice, you eat barley, you gram and you eat sesame. These cereals are specifically meant for you. Do not kill those who are capable of being fathers and mothers.)-``Protect both our species, two-legged and four-legged. Both food and water for their needs supply. May they with us increase in stature and strength. Save us from hurt all our days, O Powers! Rig Veda Samhita 10.37.11. VE, 319)-`` One who partakes of human flesh, the flesh of a horse or of another animal, and deprives others of milk by slaughtering cows, O King, if such a fiend does not desist by other means, then you should not hesitate to punish such a person. Rig Veda Samhita, 10.87.16, FS 90 .. Do not kill any of the Creatures. (Yaju. L 1)-``Pashunstraayethaam Yajurveda 6.11

Protect the animals.)3 ``-Ya aamam maansamadanti paurusheyam cha ye kravih Garbhaan khaadanti keshavaastaanito naashayaamasi- Atharvaveda 8.6.23- ``We ought to destroy those who eat cooked as well as uncooked meat, meat involving destruction of males and females, foetus and eggs-Atharvaveda 8.6.23``

Hinduism

Non-human life

Hindus do not substantially differentiate the soul within a human body from that of an animal.^[8] Hence ahimsa as a binding code of conduct implies a ban on hunting, butchery, meat eating, and the use of animal products provided by violent means. The question of moral duties towards animals and of negative Karma incurred from violence against them is discussed in detail in some Hindu scriptures and religious lawbooks.

Some source texts discuss meat eating as a fact without referring to the ethical side of the issue. The Dharmasutra law books written around the 5th or 4th century BCE contain regulations for meat eating and lists of edible animals.^[9] Medical treatises of the Ayurveda Ayurveda Ayurvedic medicine is a system of traditional medicine native to the Indian subcontinent and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine. In Sanskrit, the word ayurveda consists of the words āyus, meaning "longevity", and veda, meaning "related to knowledge" or "science". Evolving discuss and recommend meat from a purely health-related viewpoint without even mentioning the aspect of ahimsa.^[10] Examples are the Sushruta Samhita The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, attributed to Sushruta. He is widely considered the "Father of Surgery" written in the 3rd or 4th century CE, which recommends beef for certain patients and for pregnant women,^[11] and the Charaka Samhita The Caraka Saṃhitā Sutra is an ancient Indian Ayurvedic text on internal medicine written by Caraka. It is believed to be the oldest of the three ancient treatises of Ayurveda. It is central to the modern-day practice of Ayurvedic medicine; and, along with the Sushruta Samhita it is now identified worldwide as an important early source of which describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.^[12]

Several highly authoritative scriptures bar violence against domestic animals except in the case of ritual sacrifice. This view is clearly expressed in the Mahabharata The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The epic is part of the Hindu itihāsa (or "history"),^[13] the Bhagavata Purana The Bhāgavata Purāṇa (also known as Śrīmad Bhāgavatam, or Bhāgavata) is one of the "Maha" Puranic texts of Hindu literature, with its primary focus on bhakti (devotion) to the incarnations of Vishnu, particularly Krishna. The Sanskrit text comprises twelve skandas (cantos or books) and some 18,000 verses. The Bhāgavata includes (11.5.13-14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1). It is also reflected in the Manu Smriti Manusmṛti or Manusmriti , also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of Hinduism. Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, it was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, an (5.27-44), a particularly renowned traditional Hindu lawbook (Dharmaśāstra). These texts strongly condemn the slaughter of animals and meat eating. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors (Kshatriyas Kshatriya or Kashtriya meaning warrior is one of the four varnas (social orders) in Hinduism. शर्म ब्राहमणस्य वर्म क्षत्रियस्य गुप्तेती वैश्यस्य Prasar grhaysutras). It traditionally constituted the military and ruling elite of the Vedic-Hindu social system),^[14] but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent.^[15] This view has, for the most part, been changed, and now almost all Hindu temples ban meat from temple premises.

Nevertheless the sources show that this compromise between supporters of ahimsa and meat eaters was shaky and hotly disputed. Even the loopholes – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of ahimsa.^[16] The Mahabharata and the Manu Smriti (5.27-55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter.^[17] In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.^[18]

Most of the arguments proposed in favour of non-violence to animals refer to rewards it entails before or after death and to horrible karmic consequences of violence.^[19] In particular, it is pointed out that he who deliberately kills an animal will on his part be eaten by an animal in a future existence due to karmic retribution.^[20] Ahimsa is described as a prerequisite for acquiring supernatural faculties, highest bliss and ultimate salvation;^[21] moreover it is said to protect against all kinds of dangers.^[22] The Manu Smriti (10.63), Kautilya Chānakya (c. 350–283 BCE) was an adviser and prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta (c. 340-293 BCE), and was the chief architect of his rise to power. Kautilya and Vishnugupta, the names by which the ancient Indian political treatise called the Arthaśāstra identifies its author, are traditionally identified with Chanakya’s Arthashastra The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian Hindu treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy which identifies its author by the names Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–283 BC), who was a scholar at Takshashila and later the prime minister of the Maurya Empire (1.3.13) and the Vasishtha Dharmasutra (4.4) point out that ahimsa is a duty for all the four classes (Varnas Varna refers to the main division of Hindu society into four social classes based on guna (attribute) and karma (activity), through in recent times this has been used interchangeably with the word jati or caste. This quadruple division based on varna is not to be confused with the much finer division of the contemporary caste system in India. The) of society. The texts declare that ahimsa should be extended to all forms of life. They also give attention to the protection of plants. The Manu Smriti prohibits wanton destruction of both wild and cultivated plants (11.145). Hermits (Sannyasins) had to live on a fruitarian When discussing food, the term "fruit" usually refers to just those plant fruits that are sweet and fleshy . Botanically, though, some foods not typically considered fruits—including bell peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers, nuts and grains—are fruits diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.^[23]

Under these circumstances the defenders of hunting and ritual slaughter had to deny the violent nature of these activities.^{[citation needed]} They asserted that lawful violence is in fact non-violence; according to them sacrificial killing is not killing, but is meant for the welfare of the whole world.^[24] They also suggested that such killing is in fact a benevolent act, because the slaughtered animal will attain a high rebirth in the cycle of reincarnation.^[25] Moreover they argued that some species have been created for the purpose of being sacrificed and eaten by humans,^[26] that it is normal for animals to kill and eat other animals,^[27] that agriculture, too, inevitably leads to the death of many animals,^[28] that plants are living beings as well and must still be destroyed,^[27] that we unintentionally and unknowingly destroy life forms all the time,^[29] and that a hunted animal has a fair chance to survive by killing the hunter.^[30]

Quotes from Manusmriti Manusmṛti (Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति), also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of Hinduism. Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, it was first translated into English in 1794 by

Anumantaa vishasitaa nihantaa krayavikrayee Samskartaa chopahartaa cha khadakashcheti ghaatakaah- Manusmrithi 5.51 ``Those who permit slaying of animals; those who bring animals for slaughter; those who slaughter; those who sell meat; those who purchase meat; those who prepare dish out of it; those who serve that meat and those who eat are all murderers``.

Quotes from Mahabharatha

Mahabharat, Shantiparva 265.9.4 "Suraa Matsyaa Pashormaasam Aasavam Krisharoudanam Dhurtaih Prvartitam Yajne Naitad Vedeshu Vidyate Avyavasthitamaryaadaeh Vimudhairnaastikaeh Naraeh Sanshayaatmabhiravyaktaih Hinsaa Samanuvarnitaa" Meaning:_ ``Alcohol-drinking, Fish, Meat eating, aasava consumption - these are not present in Vedas. These have been propagated by fraud people. They have fraudulently added these uncontrolled, reckless, atheist descriptions in our texts. Further Mahabharata states "Mansaharinah Kuto Daya" - How can you expect compassion from a meat-eater!

Quotes from Ramayana The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is attributed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon (smṛti). The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India, the other being the Mahabharata. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal

Saint Valmiki was going to the river Ganga for his daily ablutions. A disciple by the name Bharadwaja was carrying his clothes. On the way, they came across the Tamasa Stream. Looking at the stream, Valmiki said to his disciple, "Look, how clear is this water, like the mind of a good man! I will bathe here today." When he was looking for a suitable place to step into the stream, he heard the sweet chirping of birds. Looking up, he saw two birds flying together. Valmiki felt very pleased on seeing the happy bird couple. Suddenly, one of the birds fell down, hit by an arrow; it was the male bird. Seeing the wounded one, its mate screamed in agony. Valmiki's heart melted at this pitiful sight. He looked around to find out who had shot the bird. He saw a hunter with a bow and arrows, nearby. Valmiki became very angry. His lips opened and he uttered the following words:

mā niṣāda pratiṣṭhāṁ tvamagamaḥ śāśvatīḥ samāḥ yat krauñcamithunādekam avadhīḥ kāmamohitam[8] _``You will find no rest for the long years of Eternity, For you killed a bird in love and unsuspecting-``[9]

Self-defense, criminal law, and war

Hindu scriptures and law books support the use of violence in self-defense against an armed attacker.^[31] They make it clear that criminals are not protected by the rule of ahimsa.^[32] They have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.^[33]

According to some interpretations, the concept of ahimsa as expounded in the scriptures and law books is not meant to imply pacifism; war is seen as a normal part of life and the natural duty of the warriors.^[34] In the second chapter of the Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita , also more simply known as Gita, is a sacred Hindu scripture, considered among the most important texts in the history of literature and philosophy. The Bhagavad Gita comprises roughly 700 verses, and is a part of the Mahabharata. The teacher of the Bhagavad Gita is Lord Krishna, who is revered by Hindus as a manifestation of Krishna Krishna is a deity worshipped across many traditions in Hinduism in a variety of perspectives. While many Vaishnava groups recognize Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu, other traditions within Krishnaism consider him to be svayam bhagavan, or the Supreme Being refutes the pacifist ideas of Arjuna Arjuna or Arjun is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' (cf. Latin argentum), was such a peerless archer that he is often referred to as Jishnu - the undefeatable. The third of the five Pandava brothers, Arjuna was one of the children borne by Kunti, the and uses various arguments to convince him that he must fight and kill in the impending battle. According to this interpretation of the scriptures, face-to-face combat is highly meritorious and fighters who die in battle go to heaven.^[35] The apparent conflict between pacifistic interpretations of Ahimsa and the just war prescribed by the Gita has been resolved by some individuals by resorting to allegorical readings. Some of which are based on Theosophical Theosophy is a doctrine of religious philosophy and mysticism. Theosophy holds that all religions are attempts by the "Spiritual Hierarchy" to help humanity in evolving to greater perfection, and that each religion therefore has a portion of the truth. The founding members, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky , Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907), interpretations and were notably represented by Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Hindi: मोहनदास करमचंद गाँधी, Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, pronounced [moːɦən̪d̪aːs kərəmʨən̪d̪ ɡaːn̪d̪ʱiː] ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian,^[36] who made clear throughout his life and his own commentary on the Gita that it was "an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna, man's higher impulses struggling against evil."^[37]

Modern times

Gandhi promoted the principle of ahimsa very successfully by applying it to all spheres of life, particularly to politics.

In modern Hinduism slaughter according to the rituals permitted in the Vedic scriptures has virtually disappeared. In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (January 12, 1863–July 4, 1902), born Narendranath Dutta was the chief disciple of the 19th century mystic Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the founder of Ramakrishna Mission. He is considered a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America and is also credited with raising interfaith awareness,,^[38] Ramana Maharshi Sri Ramana Maharshi (December 30, 1879 – April 14, 1950), born Venkataraman Iyer, was a Hindu sage. He was born to a Tamil-speaking Brahmin family in Tiruchuzhi, Tamil Nadu. After having attained liberation at the age of 16, he left home for Arunachala, a mountain considered sacred by Hindus, at Tiruvannamalai, and lived there for the rest of,^[39] Swami Sivananda Swami Sivananda Saraswati was a Hindu spiritual teacher and a well known proponent of Sivananda Yoga and Vedanta. Sivananda was born Kuppuswami in Pattamadai, in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. He studied medicine and served in Malaya as a physician for several years before taking up monasticism. He lived most of the later part of his life^[40] and A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami^[41] emphasized the importance of ahimsa.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Hindi: मोहनदास करमचंद गाँधी, Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, pronounced [moːɦən̪d̪aːs kərəmʨən̪d̪ ɡaːn̪d̪ʱiː] ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian promoted the principle of ahimsa very successfully by applying it to all spheres of life, particularly to politics.^[42] His non-violent resistance movement satyagraha Satyagraha is a philosophy and practice of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as "Mahatma" Gandhi). Gandhi deployed satyagraha in the Indian independence movement and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa. Satyagraha theory influenced Nelson Mandela's struggle in South Africa under had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries and influenced the leaders of various civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights and freedoms that protect individuals from unwarranted action by government and private organizations and individuals and ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression movements such as Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African American civil rights movement. His main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the United States, and he has become a human rights icon: King is recognized as a martyr by two Christian churches. A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights In Gandhi’s thought ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury, but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with ahimsa.^[43] Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo (Bengali: শ্রী অরবিন্দ (অরবিন্দ ঘোষ) Sri Ôrobindo) (15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950) was an Indian nationalist and freedom fighter, major Indian English poet, philosopher, and yogi. He joined the movement for India's freedom from British rule and for a duration (1905–10), became one of criticized the Gandhian concept of ahimsa as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.^[44]

A thorough historical and philosophical study of ahimsa was instrumental in the shaping of Albert Schweitzer's principle of "reverence for life". Schweitzer criticized Indian philosophical and religious traditions for having conceived ahimsa as the negative principle of avoiding violence instead of emphasizing the importance of positive action (helping injured beings).^[45]

Yoga

Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali’s "classical" Yoga (Raja Yoga). It is one of the five Yamas (restraints) which make up the code of conduct, the first of the eight limbs of which this path consists.^[46] In the schools of Bhakti Yoga, the devotees who worship Vishnu or Krishna are particularly keen on ahimsa.^[47] Another Bhakti Yoga school, Radha Soami Satsang Beas observes vegetarianism and moral living as aspects of "ahimsa." Ahimsa is also an obligation in Hatha Yoga according to the classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika (1.1.17).

Jainism

Main article: Ahimsa in Jainism The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. The word in the middle is "ahimsa". The wheel represents the dharmacakra which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.

In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion.^[48] Non-violence is seen as the most essential religious duty for everyone (ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples).^[49] Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful Karma.^[50] When Mahavira revived and reorganized the Jain movement in the 6th or 5th century BCE,^[51] ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule.^[52] Parshva, the earliest Jain leader (Tirthankar) whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure,^[53] lived in about the 8th century BCE.^[54] He founded the community to which Mahavira’s parents belonged.^[55] Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva’s followers.^[56] In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa.^[57] There is some evidence, however, that ancient Jain ascetics accepted meat as alms if the animal had not been specifically killed for them.^[58] Modern Jains deny this vehemently, especially with regard to Mahavira himself.^[59] According to the Jain tradition either lacto-vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory.^[60]

The Jain concept of ahimsa is characterized by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.^[61] Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.^[62] Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.^[63] For example, Jains often do not go out at night, when they are more likely to step upon an insect. In their view, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action.^[64] Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees.^[65] Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects,^[66] but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers.^[67]. Additionally, because they consider harsh words to be a form of violence, they often keep a cloth to ritually cover their mouth, as a reminder not to allow violence in their speech.

In contrast, Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self-defense can be justified,^[68] and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.^[69] Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defense, and there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.^[70]

Though, theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury, Jains admit that this ideal cannot be completely implemented in practice. Hence, they recognize a hierarchy of life. Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. For the mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more they care about its protection. Among the five-sensed beings, the rational ones (humans) are most strongly protected by Jain ahimsa.^[71] In the practice of ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons who have undertaken anuvrata (Lesser Vows) than for the monks and nuns who are bound by mahavrata (Great Vows).^[72]

Buddhism

Unlike in Hindu and Jain sources, in ancient Buddhist texts ahimsa (or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā) is not used as a technical term.^[73] The traditional Buddhist understanding of non-violence is not as rigid as the Jain one, but like the Jains, Buddhists have always condemned the killing of all living beings.^[74][75] In most Buddhist traditions vegetarianism is not mandatory. Monks and lay persons may eat meat and fish on condition that the animal was not killed specifically for them.^[76]

Since the beginnings of the Buddhist community, monks and nuns have had to commit themselves to Five Precepts of moral conduct.^[75] In ancient Buddhism, lay persons were encouraged, but not obliged, to commit themselves to observe the Five Training Precepts of morality (Pañcasīla).^[77] In both codes the first rule is to abstain from taking the life of a sentient being (Pānātipātā).^[78] Buddhist monks should avoid cutting or burning trees, because some sentient beings rely on them.^[79]

War

Unlike the Vedic religion, ancient Buddhism had strong misgivings about violent ways of punishing criminals and about war. Both were not explicitly condemned,^[80] but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged.^[81][82] The early texts condemn rather the mental states that lead to violent behavior.^[83]

Non-violence is an over-riding concern of the Pali Canon.^[84] While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal king as a pacifist, such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army.^[85] It seems that the Buddha's teaching on non-violence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists.^[85] The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as a necessity for defensive warfare.^[86] In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalize monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.^[87]

The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such.^[88] Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.^[89] In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having an inordinate impact on the next birth.^[90]

Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.^[91] One example is the Kosala Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defense, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. Upon his return (in defeat), the Buddha says, among other things, that Pasenadi is "a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu.^[92]

According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death.^[93] Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicization is predicated upon intent.^[94] Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to save, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.^[95]

According to Babasaheb Ambedkar, the doctrine of Ahimsa does not say "Kill not" it says, "Love all". Buddha said "Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any" This is a positive way of stating the principle of Ahimsa. The Buddhas' Ahimsa is quite in keeping with his middle path. To put it differently, the Buddha made a distinction between Principle and Rule. He did not make Ahimsa a matter of Rule. He enunciated it as a matter of Principle or way of life. A principle leaves you freedom to act. A rule does not. Rule either breaks you, or you break the rule.^[96]

Laws

Ashoka the Great tried to stop killing but was not successful.^[97] The emperors of Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty and early Song dynasty banned killing in Lunar calendar 1st, 5th, and 9th month.^{[98][99][100]} Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692.^[101] Some also banned fishing for some time each year.^[102]

The King Bayinnaung of Burma, after conquering the Bago in 1559, the Buddhist King prohibited the practice of halal, specifically, killing food animals in the name of God. He also disallowed the Eid al-Adha religious sacrifice of cattle. Halal food was also forbidden by king Alaungpaya in the 18th century.

There were bans after death of emperors^[103][104], Buddhist and Taoist prayers, ^[105][106] Health concerns^{[107][108][109]} and natural disasters such as after a drought in 1926 summer Shanghai^[110] and a 8 days ban from August 12, 1959 after the August 7 flood (八七水災), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.^[111][112] There was a 3 day ban after the death of Chiang Kai-shek.^[113]

People avoid killing during some festivals, like Taoist Ghost Festival^[114], Nine Emperor Gods Festival, Vegetarian Festival and many others.^{[115][116][117][118]}

See also

• Consistent life ethic
• Non-violence
• Nonresistance
• Pacifism
• Yamas
• Karuna
• Gandhism
• Satyagraha
• Vegetarianism and religion
• History of vegetarianism
• Sumud

References

1. ^ Tähtinen p. 2.
2. ^ Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.
3. ^ Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence in South Asian cultural history. BRILL, 1999 page 30.
4. ^ Tähtinen p. 2-3.
5. ^ John Bowker, Problems of suffering in religions of the world. Cambridge University Press, 1975, page 233.
6. ^ Tähtinen p. 2-5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.
7. ^ Puruṣottama Bilimoria, Joseph Prabhu, Renuka M. Sharma, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, page 315.
8. ^ Bhagavad Gita 5.18 "The humble sages, by virtue of true knowledge, see with equal vision a learned and gentle brahmana, a cow, an elephant, a dog and a dog-eater [outcaste]."
9. ^ Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; Apastamba Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26-2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.
10. ^ Alsdorf p. 617-619.
11. ^ Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.
12. ^ Sutrasthana 27.87.
13. ^ Mahabharata 3.199.11-12 (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17.
14. ^ Mahabharata 13.115.59-60; 13.116.15-18.
15. ^ Alsdorf p. 592-593.
16. ^ Alsdorf p. 572-577 (for the Manu Smriti) and p. 585-597 (for the Mahabharata); Tähtinen p. 34-36.
17. ^ Mahabharata 12.260 (12.260 is 12.268 according to another count); 13.115-116; 14.28.
18. ^ Mahabharata 3.199 (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count).
19. ^ Tähtinen p. 39-43.
20. ^ Schmidt p. 629, 643-645.
21. ^ Alsdorf p. 589; Schmidt p. 634-635, 640-643; Tähtinen p. 41-42.
22. ^ Alsdorf p. 590.
23. ^ Schmidt p. 637-639.
24. ^ Manu Smriti 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207).
25. ^ Manu Smriti 5.32; 5.39-40; 5.42; 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207); 14.28.
26. ^ Manu Smriti 5.30, Mahabharata 3.199.5 (3.207.5).
27. ^ ^{a b} Mahabharata 3.199.23-24 (3.207.23-24).
28. ^ Mahabharata 3.199.19 (3.207.19).
29. ^ Mahabharata 3.199.28-29 (3.207.28-29).
30. ^ Mahabharata 13.116.15-18.
31. ^ Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349-350; Matsya Purana 226.116.
32. ^ Tähtinen p. 96, 98-101.
33. ^ Tähtinen p. 96, 98-99.
34. ^ Tähtinen p. 91-93.
35. ^ Tähtinen p. 93.
36. ^ Gandhi, Mohandas K., The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi Berkeley Hills Books, Berkeley 2000
37. ^ Fischer, Louis: Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World Mentor, New York 1954, pp. 15-16
38. ^ Religious Vegetarianism, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 50-52.
39. ^ Ramana Maharishi: Be as you are
40. ^ Swami Sivananda: Bliss Divine, p. 3-8.
41. ^ Religious Vegetarianism p. 56-60.
42. ^ Tähtinen p. 116-124.
43. ^ Walli p. XXII-XLVII; Borman, William: Gandhi and Non-Violence, Albany 1986, p. 11-12.
44. ^ Tähtinen p. 115-116.
45. ^ Schweitzer, Albert: Indian Thought and its Development, London 1956, p. 80-84, 100-104, 110-112, 198-200, 223-225, 229-230.
46. ^ Patañjali: Yoga Sutras, Sadhana Pada 30.
47. ^ Tähtinen p. 87.
48. ^ Laidlaw, James: Riches and Renunciation. Religion, economy, and society among the Jains, Oxford 1995, p. 154-160; Jindal, K.B.: An epitome of Jainism, New Delhi 1988, p. 74-90; Tähtinen p. 110.
49. ^ Dundas, Paul: The Jains, second edition, London 2002, p. 160; Wiley, Kristi L.: Ahimsa and Compassion in Jainism, in: Studies in Jaina History and Culture, ed. Peter Flügel, London 2006, p. 438; Laidlaw p. 153-154.
50. ^ Laidlaw p. 26-30, 191-195.
51. ^ Dundas p. 24 suggests the 5th century; the traditional dating of Mahavira’s death is 527 BCE.
52. ^ Goyal, S.R.: A History of Indian Buddhism, Meerut 1987, p. 83-85.
53. ^ Dundas p. 19, 30; Tähtinen p. 132.
54. ^ Dundas p. 30 suggests the 8th or 7th century; the traditional chronology places him in the late 9th or early 8th century.
55. ^ Acaranga Sutra 2.15.
56. ^ Sthananga Sutra 266; Tähtinen p. 132; Goyal p. 83-84, 103.
57. ^ Dundas p. 160, 234, 241; Wiley p. 448; Granoff, Phyllis: The Violence of Non-Violence: A Study of Some Jain Responses to Non-Jain Religious Practices, in: Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 15 (1992) p. 1-43; Tähtinen p. 8-9.
58. ^ Alsdorf p. 564-570; Dundas p. 177.
59. ^ Alsdorf p. 568-569.
60. ^ Laidlaw p. 169.
61. ^ Laidlaw p. 166-167; Tähtinen p. 37.
62. ^ Lodha, R.M.: Conservation of Vegetation and Jain Philosophy, in: Medieval Jainism: Culture and Environment, New Delhi 1990, p. 137-141; Tähtinen p. 105.
63. ^ Jindal p. 89; Laidlaw p. 54, 154-155, 180.
64. ^ Sutrakrtangasutram 1.8.3; Uttaradhyayanasutra 10; Tattvarthasutra 7.8; Dundas p. 161-162.
65. ^ Hemacandra: Yogashastra 3.37; Laidlaw p. 166-167.
66. ^ Laidlaw p. 180.
67. ^ Sangave, Vilas Adinath: Jaina Community. A Social Survey, second edition, Bombay 1980, p. 259; Dundas p. 191.
68. ^ Nisithabhasya (in Nisithasutra) 289; Jinadatta Suri: Upadesharasayana 26; Dundas p. 162-163; Tähtinen p. 31.
69. ^ Jindal p. 89-90; Laidlaw p. 154-155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.: Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism, in: Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism, ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52-60; Tähtinen p. 31.
70. ^ Harisena, Brhatkathakosa 124 (10th century); Jindal p. 90-91; Sangave p. 259.
71. ^ Jindal p. 89, 125-133 (detailed exposition of the classification system); Tähtinen p. 17, 113.
72. ^ Dundas p. 158-159, 189-192; Laidlaw p. 173-175, 179; Religious Vegetarianism, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 43-46 (translation of the First Great Vow).
73. ^ Tähtinen p. 10.
74. ^ Sarao, K.T.S.: The Origin and Nature of Ancient Indian Buddhism, Delhi 1989, p. 49; Goyal p. 143; Tähtinen p. 37.
75. ^ ^{a b} Lamotte, Etienne: History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988, p. 54-55.
76. ^ Sarao p. 51-52; Alsdorf p. 561-564.
77. ^ Lamotte p. 69-70.
78. ^ Lamotte p. 70.
79. ^ 從律典探索佛教對動物的態度（中）
80. ^ Sarao p. 53; Tähtinen p. 95, 102.
81. ^ Tähtinen p. 95, 102-103.
82. ^ Kurt A. Raaflaub, War and Peace in the Ancient World. Blackwell Publishing, 2007 , page 61. [1]
83. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 52.
84. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 111.
85. ^ ^{a b} Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 41.
86. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 50.
87. ^ Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, pages 195-196.
88. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 40.
89. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, pages 125-126. Full texts of the sutta:[2].
90. ^ Rune E.A. Johansson, The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism. Curzon Press 1979, page 33.
91. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, pages 40-53. Some examples are the Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta, the Kosala Samyutta, the Ratthapala Sutta, and the Sinha Sutta. See also page 125. See also Trevor Ling, Buddhism, Imperialism, and War. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136-137.
92. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 49, see also pages 52-53.
93. ^ Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics. Wisdom Publications, 1997, pages 60, 159, see also Bartholomeusz page 121.
94. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 121.
95. ^ Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, pages 44, 121-122, 124, .
96. ^ http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/04_02.html#03_02 The Buddha and His Dhamma
97. ^ 佛教与素食
98. ^ 卷糺 佛教的慈悲觀
99. ^ 試探《護生畫集》的護生觀 高明芳
100. ^ 唐《開元二十五年令•雜令》研究
101. ^ 「護生」精神的實踐舉隅
102. ^ 答妙贞十问
103. ^ 第一二八期　佛法自由談
104. ^ 贵阳南明--生态文明城区
105. ^ 虛雲和尚法彙—書問
106. ^ 五朝祈安清醮三重全市茹素三天祈福
107. ^ 比利时出现口蹄疫欧陆如临大敌
108. ^ 吉林启动禽流感应急预案 长春活禽市场全关闭
109. ^ 阆中古城首接“禁屠令”
110. ^ 灾异
111. ^ 組員:余秉育
112. ^ 道安長老年譜
113. ^ 陈立夫
114. ^ 农历中元节
115. ^ 明溪县“禁屠日”习俗的由来
116. ^ 滇西独特的禁屠护兽节
117. ^ "「四月六、七、八日禁屠三天」的玄機！！". Archived from the original on 2009-10-24. http://www.webcitation.org/5kmDTvREW.
118. ^ 建构的节日：政策过程视角下的唐玄宗诞节

External links

• Ahimsa quotations from Puranic scripture (vedabase.net)

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